The Challenges in Catholic–Muslim Dialogue
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Historical and Theological Relationship Between Christianity and Islam.
In the Catholic–Muslim, and indeed the Christian–Muslim dialogue, it has become common to stress the fact that both Muslims and Christians believe in the same, one God and consider themselves children of Abraham. Muslims are fond of showing the great reverence which they have for Jesus and Mary. Indeed the Quran has more on Mary than does the New Testament. While such exercises are important for building good will and trust, the challenge of the dialogue lies, I believe, in other areas which sometimes surface unexpectedly. Muslims with their high regard for Jesus and Mary are, for example, perplexed by Christian lack of reverence for Muhammad and even their hostility toward him. While the hostility can sometimes be attributed to simple bigotry, there are deeper theological issues at stake.
For Roman Catholics and for most, if not all, Christians Jesus Christ is the perfect and final revelation of God. This is clearly stated in the document on revelation from the Second Vatican Council. In Dei Verbum, 4, we read, “The Christian dispensation, therefore, as the new and definitive covenant, will never pass away, and we now await no further new public revelation before the glorious manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ (1 Timothy 6:14 and Titus.2:13)” (2) This is very similar to the Muslim belief that Muhammad is the Seal of the Prophets (33: 41). The two beliefs are also to a great extent mutually exclusive. This sets up a situation which is often difficult for the Muslim partner to understand and which is taken for granted by the Christian partner. Judaism, Christianity and Islam consider themselves to be revealed religions. Christianity sees itself as built upon or even fulfilling Judaism; Islam sees itself as purifying and perfecting both Judaism and Christianity. In this situation each religion looks back—sometimes grudgingly—with respect on its “predecessor” and accepts the scripture of its predecessor as inspired. Thus Christians consider the Hebrew Scriptures as part of their own patrimony. Moses, the prophets and the holy people of the Old Testament are revered among Christians much as Jesus and Mary are revered among Muslims. The Quran sees the tawra (Torah) and ’inji-l (Gospel) as having been revealed by God. Each of these religions, however, has serious theological problems with its “successor”.
Thus Judaism cannot accept the validity of Christianity and Islam without calling its own validity into question. And Christianity cannot accept the Quran on a par with the Old and New Testaments without calling its own validity into question. Schematically and analogically put: Judaism is to Christianity as Christianity is to Islam, and as Islam is to Bahaism or Ahmadiyyah. This presents a challenge to the dialogue in that it recognizes a certain asymmetry exists between the partners. However it also inserts a note of realism and caution.
Theological Methodologies
A very important and long-term challenge to the Catholic–Muslim dialogue can be found in the attempt to understand each other’s theological methodologies. Although the term sounds particularly, if not peculiarly, Western, its import should not be overlooked. Through the centuries both Roman Catholicism and Islam have developed highly sophisticated methods of handling religious questions and of articulating their respective faiths. Disciplines such as exegesis, philosophy, moral reasoning and jurisprudence have enjoyed long histories in both traditions. It would be disastrous, however, to think that both traditions use and understand these disciplines in the same way. Islamic disciplines such as fiqh, kalam and tafsir are highly developed sciences with their own internal laws and logic, and which may or may not correspond without remainder to Roman Catholic Jurisprudence, theology and exegesis. Although this may seem somewhat academic, it has important consequences for the catholic Muslim dialogue, especially in the area of morality.
It has been the case recently that Roman Catholics and Muslims find themselves on the same “side” in public discussions on matters of sexuality. Given a particular moral question, Roman Catholics and Muslims often arrive at similar or identical conclusions. It is mistaken, however, to believe that both Catholics and Muslims have arrived at the conclusion in the same way. It is of the utmost importance that both Catholics and Muslims understand how the other tradition theologizes. If there is not a thorough understanding of how the dialogue partner arrives at religious/moral conclusions, the stage is set for disillusion and a sense of betrayal. Without an understanding of how the dialogue partner theologizes, Catholics and Muslims become perplexed when, after having arrived at the same conclusion regarding one question their different methodologies lead them to radically different conclusions on other questions. Abortion, birth control, divorce, capital punishment and war are cases in point.
The Kerygmatic Nature of Christianity and Islam
Both Christianity and Islam, unlike Judaism, are universal and missionary religions. Christians see a serious obligation to spread the Gospel in Christ’s command to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt. 28:19). Likewise Muslims see a serious obligation in da’wa, the “invitation” or “call” to Islam. Both the Christian and Muslim sense of responsibility to spread their message must be recognized in the Catholic–Muslim dialogue. While it must be recognized that both Christians and Muslims have at times engaged in unfair proselytism, it cannot be expected that either Christians or Muslims will abandon what they believe is their God-given mission to the world. It is extremely important that both partners in this dialogue realize this, since it has recently been the cause of some confusion in local dialogues.
The publication of the encyclical Redemptoris Missio (3) on the need for evangelization was greeted by some Muslims as a betrayal of the principles of interreligious dialogue. This stems perhaps from a misunderstanding of the nature of interreligious dialogue. Subsequent documents have attempted to correct that misunderstanding, (4) although it remains a major challenge to the dialogue. The purpose of the Catholic–Muslim dialogue is most clearly not to replace either Christian mission or Muslim da’wa(5). The papal encyclical as well as the continued existence of da’wa societies should make that quite clear. The dialogue, however, can help develop guidelines of fairness and honesty in situations where the Christian missionary and the Muslim da’i, or missionary, work in the same areas. In the United States, for example, Muslim missionary activity among African-American Christians provides a challenging point of dialogue.
Creative Possibilities
There are also, I believe, some great challenges for creative cooperation between Roman Catholics and Muslims. In addition to sharing and in some cases even re-appropriating our respective traditions, there are positive challenges which the modern world offers to people of faith. These new challenges offer us the opportunity to move beyond the wounds and prejudices of the past and to move together into a new future. I am thinking particularly of questions of justice, peace and the integrity of creation. Neither Roman Catholics nor Muslims have developed an articulated theology concerning responsibility for the planet. This is to a great extent due to the fact that such questions are new. Their very newness, however, opens up the possibility of exploring our traditions for indications of a common approach to the questions of modern ecology. In Christianity (and Judaism) humans are presented as having been created in the image and likeness of God (Genesis 1:26–27) and given the earth to fill and subdue (Gn.1:28). The psalmist proclaims “The highest heavens belong to God, but the earth he has given to the children of Adam” (Psalms 115:16). In creation the psalmist sees God reflected: “The heavens declare the glory of God, the vault of heaven proclaims his handiwork” (Psalms 19:1). God announces in the Quran that the human he is about to create is khallfa, his vicar (2:31). The reader/hearer of the Quran is informed that God has not created the heavens and the earth for no reason (38:28). Together Roman Catholics and Muslims are challenged to show how our individual traditions call for responsibility toward the creation which ultimately sprang from and will return to God. We are further challenged to see how our traditions can together provide a framework of faith in which human beings can live harmoniously with high technology and a fragile environment.
In addition both Catholicism and Islam are challenged by the dialogue once again to explore topics such as prophecy in Christian theology and the notion of tahrif in Islam, merely to name two.
Ultimate Challenge
The most important challenge to the Roman Catholic–Muslim dialogue is perhaps also the most obvious and the simplest. That challenge is to believe that the work of the dialogue is an action of God’s grace. We must, however, pause before too readily acknowledging this.
If the dialogue is an action of God’s grace, the responsibility of the dialogue partners is great. In both traditions God holds human beings responsible for their actions.(6) To turn an action of God’s grace into a debate or a special-interest lobby would be nothing less than sinful. Recognizing in the dialogue a graced moment, the challenge is to open ourselves to this moment and to the uncertainties which it brings. God does not need us to defend him; that is not what we are here for. We are here as a people who follow and believe in a mysterious transcendent Other who has spoken to us and revealed himself to us.
Where God will lead us in the dialogue is not yet known to us. However, if we believe that the dialogue is an act of God’s grace then we are challenged to find the courage to follow the dialogue through with faith and conviction.
In the Catholic–Muslim, and indeed the Christian–Muslim dialogue, it has become common to stress the fact that both Muslims and Christians believe in the same, one God and consider themselves children of Abraham. Muslims are fond of showing the great reverence which they have for Jesus and Mary. Indeed the Quran has more on Mary than does the New Testament. While such exercises are important for building good will and trust, the challenge of the dialogue lies, I believe, in other areas which sometimes surface unexpectedly. Muslims with their high regard for Jesus and Mary are, for example, perplexed by Christian lack of reverence for Muhammad and even their hostility toward him. While the hostility can sometimes be attributed to simple bigotry, there are deeper theological issues at stake.
For Roman Catholics and for most, if not all, Christians Jesus Christ is the perfect and final revelation of God. This is clearly stated in the document on revelation from the Second Vatican Council. In Dei Verbum, 4, we read, “The Christian dispensation, therefore, as the new and definitive covenant, will never pass away, and we now await no further new public revelation before the glorious manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ (1 Timothy 6:14 and Titus.2:13)” (2) This is very similar to the Muslim belief that Muhammad is the Seal of the Prophets (33: 41). The two beliefs are also to a great extent mutually exclusive. This sets up a situation which is often difficult for the Muslim partner to understand and which is taken for granted by the Christian partner. Judaism, Christianity and Islam consider themselves to be revealed religions. Christianity sees itself as built upon or even fulfilling Judaism; Islam sees itself as purifying and perfecting both Judaism and Christianity. In this situation each religion looks back—sometimes grudgingly—with respect on its “predecessor” and accepts the scripture of its predecessor as inspired. Thus Christians consider the Hebrew Scriptures as part of their own patrimony. Moses, the prophets and the holy people of the Old Testament are revered among Christians much as Jesus and Mary are revered among Muslims. The Quran sees the tawra (Torah) and ’inji-l (Gospel) as having been revealed by God. Each of these religions, however, has serious theological problems with its “successor”.
Thus Judaism cannot accept the validity of Christianity and Islam without calling its own validity into question. And Christianity cannot accept the Quran on a par with the Old and New Testaments without calling its own validity into question. Schematically and analogically put: Judaism is to Christianity as Christianity is to Islam, and as Islam is to Bahaism or Ahmadiyyah. This presents a challenge to the dialogue in that it recognizes a certain asymmetry exists between the partners. However it also inserts a note of realism and caution.
Theological Methodologies
A very important and long-term challenge to the Catholic–Muslim dialogue can be found in the attempt to understand each other’s theological methodologies. Although the term sounds particularly, if not peculiarly, Western, its import should not be overlooked. Through the centuries both Roman Catholicism and Islam have developed highly sophisticated methods of handling religious questions and of articulating their respective faiths. Disciplines such as exegesis, philosophy, moral reasoning and jurisprudence have enjoyed long histories in both traditions. It would be disastrous, however, to think that both traditions use and understand these disciplines in the same way. Islamic disciplines such as fiqh, kalam and tafsir are highly developed sciences with their own internal laws and logic, and which may or may not correspond without remainder to Roman Catholic Jurisprudence, theology and exegesis. Although this may seem somewhat academic, it has important consequences for the catholic Muslim dialogue, especially in the area of morality.
It has been the case recently that Roman Catholics and Muslims find themselves on the same “side” in public discussions on matters of sexuality. Given a particular moral question, Roman Catholics and Muslims often arrive at similar or identical conclusions. It is mistaken, however, to believe that both Catholics and Muslims have arrived at the conclusion in the same way. It is of the utmost importance that both Catholics and Muslims understand how the other tradition theologizes. If there is not a thorough understanding of how the dialogue partner arrives at religious/moral conclusions, the stage is set for disillusion and a sense of betrayal. Without an understanding of how the dialogue partner theologizes, Catholics and Muslims become perplexed when, after having arrived at the same conclusion regarding one question their different methodologies lead them to radically different conclusions on other questions. Abortion, birth control, divorce, capital punishment and war are cases in point.
The Kerygmatic Nature of Christianity and Islam
Both Christianity and Islam, unlike Judaism, are universal and missionary religions. Christians see a serious obligation to spread the Gospel in Christ’s command to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt. 28:19). Likewise Muslims see a serious obligation in da’wa, the “invitation” or “call” to Islam. Both the Christian and Muslim sense of responsibility to spread their message must be recognized in the Catholic–Muslim dialogue. While it must be recognized that both Christians and Muslims have at times engaged in unfair proselytism, it cannot be expected that either Christians or Muslims will abandon what they believe is their God-given mission to the world. It is extremely important that both partners in this dialogue realize this, since it has recently been the cause of some confusion in local dialogues.
The publication of the encyclical Redemptoris Missio (3) on the need for evangelization was greeted by some Muslims as a betrayal of the principles of interreligious dialogue. This stems perhaps from a misunderstanding of the nature of interreligious dialogue. Subsequent documents have attempted to correct that misunderstanding, (4) although it remains a major challenge to the dialogue. The purpose of the Catholic–Muslim dialogue is most clearly not to replace either Christian mission or Muslim da’wa(5). The papal encyclical as well as the continued existence of da’wa societies should make that quite clear. The dialogue, however, can help develop guidelines of fairness and honesty in situations where the Christian missionary and the Muslim da’i, or missionary, work in the same areas. In the United States, for example, Muslim missionary activity among African-American Christians provides a challenging point of dialogue.
Creative Possibilities
There are also, I believe, some great challenges for creative cooperation between Roman Catholics and Muslims. In addition to sharing and in some cases even re-appropriating our respective traditions, there are positive challenges which the modern world offers to people of faith. These new challenges offer us the opportunity to move beyond the wounds and prejudices of the past and to move together into a new future. I am thinking particularly of questions of justice, peace and the integrity of creation. Neither Roman Catholics nor Muslims have developed an articulated theology concerning responsibility for the planet. This is to a great extent due to the fact that such questions are new. Their very newness, however, opens up the possibility of exploring our traditions for indications of a common approach to the questions of modern ecology. In Christianity (and Judaism) humans are presented as having been created in the image and likeness of God (Genesis 1:26–27) and given the earth to fill and subdue (Gn.1:28). The psalmist proclaims “The highest heavens belong to God, but the earth he has given to the children of Adam” (Psalms 115:16). In creation the psalmist sees God reflected: “The heavens declare the glory of God, the vault of heaven proclaims his handiwork” (Psalms 19:1). God announces in the Quran that the human he is about to create is khallfa, his vicar (2:31). The reader/hearer of the Quran is informed that God has not created the heavens and the earth for no reason (38:28). Together Roman Catholics and Muslims are challenged to show how our individual traditions call for responsibility toward the creation which ultimately sprang from and will return to God. We are further challenged to see how our traditions can together provide a framework of faith in which human beings can live harmoniously with high technology and a fragile environment.
In addition both Catholicism and Islam are challenged by the dialogue once again to explore topics such as prophecy in Christian theology and the notion of tahrif in Islam, merely to name two.
Ultimate Challenge
The most important challenge to the Roman Catholic–Muslim dialogue is perhaps also the most obvious and the simplest. That challenge is to believe that the work of the dialogue is an action of God’s grace. We must, however, pause before too readily acknowledging this.
If the dialogue is an action of God’s grace, the responsibility of the dialogue partners is great. In both traditions God holds human beings responsible for their actions.(6) To turn an action of God’s grace into a debate or a special-interest lobby would be nothing less than sinful. Recognizing in the dialogue a graced moment, the challenge is to open ourselves to this moment and to the uncertainties which it brings. God does not need us to defend him; that is not what we are here for. We are here as a people who follow and believe in a mysterious transcendent Other who has spoken to us and revealed himself to us.
Where God will lead us in the dialogue is not yet known to us. However, if we believe that the dialogue is an act of God’s grace then we are challenged to find the courage to follow the dialogue through with faith and conviction.
Notes:
1. It might be argued that Christianity is the dominant culture in the United States, and that this is something to which Christians should be sensitive. Nonetheless, the culture of the U.S. does not seem to be determined by anyone denomination or church, and there is good reason to question whether our much-touted “Judeo-Christian” values have not been superseded by something more secular.
2. Walter M. Abbot, SJ (ed.), The Documents of Vatican II (New York: Guild Press, 1966) p. 113.
3. Cf. Origins, Vol. 20: No. 34, Jan. 31, 1991, pp. 541–568.
4. Cf. especially “Dialogue and Proclamation”, Origins Vol. 21: No. 8, July 4, 1991, pp. 121–135.
5. Perhaps one of the most honest expressions of the tensions that mutual commitments to mission and da’wa can cause is found in Maurice Borrmans (ed.) Guidelines for Dialogue Between Christians and Muslims (New York: Paulist Press) 1990: “Should Muslims be forbidden the desire to see their Christian friends become Muslims, or, similarly, do Christians not have the right to wish that their Muslim friends become Christians? They should not be denied such a desire, for otherwise there would be an undue limitation to their desire for sharing with others. Such desires are legitimate even if practically speaking they effectively exclude each other.”
6. In Christianity God is often presented as a judge. In Islam, God is also considered to be a judge; two of the “99 Beautiful Names of God” are “the Reckoner” (al-hasib and “the Watcher” (al-raqib).
1. It might be argued that Christianity is the dominant culture in the United States, and that this is something to which Christians should be sensitive. Nonetheless, the culture of the U.S. does not seem to be determined by anyone denomination or church, and there is good reason to question whether our much-touted “Judeo-Christian” values have not been superseded by something more secular.
2. Walter M. Abbot, SJ (ed.), The Documents of Vatican II (New York: Guild Press, 1966) p. 113.
3. Cf. Origins, Vol. 20: No. 34, Jan. 31, 1991, pp. 541–568.
4. Cf. especially “Dialogue and Proclamation”, Origins Vol. 21: No. 8, July 4, 1991, pp. 121–135.
5. Perhaps one of the most honest expressions of the tensions that mutual commitments to mission and da’wa can cause is found in Maurice Borrmans (ed.) Guidelines for Dialogue Between Christians and Muslims (New York: Paulist Press) 1990: “Should Muslims be forbidden the desire to see their Christian friends become Muslims, or, similarly, do Christians not have the right to wish that their Muslim friends become Christians? They should not be denied such a desire, for otherwise there would be an undue limitation to their desire for sharing with others. Such desires are legitimate even if practically speaking they effectively exclude each other.”
6. In Christianity God is often presented as a judge. In Islam, God is also considered to be a judge; two of the “99 Beautiful Names of God” are “the Reckoner” (al-hasib and “the Watcher” (al-raqib).
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